Numeracy
Historically, it has long been assumed that there is a strong connection between music and mathematics (Vaughn, 2000). Musicians playing from notation are constantly required to adopt quasi-mathematical processes to sub-divide beats and turn rhythmic notation into sound. However, this type of activity is not related to all aspects of mathematics. Transfer is only likely to occur when the skills required are ‘near’. This is supported by a recent study which showed that children receiving instruction on rhythm instruments scored higher on part-whole maths problems than those receiving piano and singing instruction.
Research exploring the relationships between mathematics and active musical engagement has had mixed results. For instance, Geoghegan and Mitchelmore (1996) investigated the impact of a music program on the mathematics achievement of preschool children. The group of children involved in musical activities scored higher on a mathematics achievement test than the control group, although home musical background may have been a confounding factor. Gardiner et al. (1996) researching the impact of an arts programme also found that participating children performed better in mathematics than those who did not, those participating the longest having the highest scores overall. A study using a national US data base also found positive effects for engagement with music. Catterall et al. (1999) using the NELS:88 data compared low socio-economic status students who exhibited high math proficiency in the 12th grade and found that 33% were involved in instrumental music compared with 15% who were not involved. Focusing on children learning to play an instrument, Haley (2001) found that those who had studied an instrument prior to 4th grade had higher scores in mathematics than those in other groups. However, Rafferty (2003) found no effect of the Music Spatial-Temporal Maths Program on the mathematics achievement of second graders. The contradictory outcomes of the research might be explained by the types of musical activities engaged in and the length of time spent.
Addressing these issues, Cheek and Smith (1999) examined whether the type of music training was related to mathematics achievement in 8th grade. Those who had two or more years of private lessons had higher scores, while those learning keyboard instruments had higher scores than those learning other instruments. Length of engagement were considered by Whitehead (2001) who found that middle and high school students who were placed in high, moderate and no treatment groups for music instruction differed in mathematics gains, 12 the high involvement children showing the greatest gains. Overall, the evidence suggests that active engagement with music can improve mathematical performance, but the nature of this relationship, the kinds of musical training needed to realise the effect, the length of time required and the specific types of mathematical problems which are affected need further investigation.
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